Guatemala Revised

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Book Review

Demanding Democracy: Reform and Reaction in Costa Rica and Guatemala 1870’s – 1950’s By: Deborah J. Yashar

            For my senior seminar paper I am analyzing the effects of colonialism on Guatemala.  Guatemala today is still an authoritarian government, where it had no stable democratization in its history.  Deborah J. Yashar’s book is a great book to reference throughout my research.  She asks two important questions how democracy is formed and what conditions will keep it in place. 

             “It assesses the historically constructed conditions that have undergirded authoritarianism and the actors that have set out to overcome them.  It takes structures seriously insofar as the organization of states, the economy, and society often institutionalize a given distribution of power, a set of vested interests, and modes of interaction.  These institutions provide the constraints within which and against which actors maneuver.  They are also likely to provide the conditions to predispose actors to favor one political outcome over another”. Yashar compares Guatemala and Costa Rica.  Two countries with similar historical backgrounds but Costa Rica enjoys a democracy where Guatemala is still under an authoritarian rule.  Yashar explains four postulates for democracy within the book. 

            In postulate one Yashar breaks down how states function in relation to markets and economy in the sense that it makes a division of people.  She says that states and markets have played a dominant role in configuring, institutionalizing, and regulating the distribution of resources and the property rights that uphold it.  Yashar argues that these markets delineate political institutions and distribution of resources that have undergirded authoritarian rule.  Within the book Yashar explains that the agro export market of Guatemala within the 1860’s to the 1880’s.  Guatemala was ranked the fourth biggest coffee producer in the world within the 1960’s.  Obstacles such as infrastructure made it harder to keep the trade up because of this Guatemala constructed railways, damns, bridges and communication networks.  What was so attractive of coffee production was the land that it was on.  The indigenous people of Guatemala inhibited the land where most of this production took place, this then caused a land distribution that enabled people to buy the land and pay a certain tax.  These taxes were too high for mostly all the indigenous people that once had occupied the land.  The argument Yashar makes is that the market of this time guided the division of the indigenous, and authoritarian rule remained. 

            In the book Yashar argues the point that historical context does push countries into authoritarian rule but what really influences this decision are precise moments where the country can reconfigure power. Yashar does a great job in making it clear that historical context is not the only factors in which countries either turn to democracy or to authoritarianism. What is most related to my paper is how she explains coalitions.   One of the conditions that Yashar analyzes is coalition.  They are defined as alliances among social sectors or groups.  Who sides with whom, against whom, and over what.  This important to my research because I talk a lot about how people were grouped in Guatemala.  What is most important within this book to my research is the critical point where Guatemala turns into a military rule and Costa Rica turns to a democratic rule in the face of the cold war where both countries tried to overthrow reforms. 

            Yashar argues that in order to endure a democracy it is not just the masses nor just the elite that need to challenge the regime.  It is necessary that the elite is divided and that they support the masses.  Elites hold the power within he society so if they are happy with the regime it is unlikely that there will be a change.  Yashar explains the October revolution within Guatemala, where military and the masses joined together to overthrow the 13 year dictatorship of Ubico.  They were successful in the overthrow but when new political parties came together, they were weak and crumbled from within.  The fourth and last postulate is an argument for civil society.  Yashar argues that in order to have and enduring democracy you also need to have a society that has developed normalized set of practices.  Such as compromise, social trust and participation.  The argument for civil organization allows democratization less threatening to the elite and allows for a coalition between the two groups.  Within the postulates Yashar articulates what is necessary for a democratic regime.  This is what outlines the differences from Guatemala and Costa Rica and why are they are so different today.  These outlines allow us to have an overall set of standards that Yashar believes holds the democratic construct together. 

A Review: The African AIDS Epidemic

In John Iliffe’s, “The African AIDS Epidemic”, he explores a full spectrum of the HIV/AIDS from its origins to its future outlook. The book contains 14 chapters starting from Origins to Epidemic, to the Penetration in West Africa, to Responses and Containment. My research on HIV/AIDS between Johannesburg and Lagos will concern Chapters 2-6 and 12-14. Chapter 2 begins with the origins of the Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome in 1959. In this year, an “American researcher studying malaria took blood specimens from patients in the city” (Iliffe 2006, 3). Twenty years later, “…when procedures for HIV [testing] became available…”, one unnamed man from Kinshasa tested positive among the blood samples taken (Iliffe 2006, 3). This test became the first recorded incident of the HIV/AIDS infection. Furthermore, “… the fact that the likely viral ancestor of HIV-1 has been found only in the chimpanzees of western equatorial Africa is one of the…reasons for thinking that the virus originated there.” Illife indicates that the “…second reason is that only that region [Western Africa] harbored not only all three groups of HIV-1, but all the subgroups of the dominant group M (Iliffe 2006, 5). Doubtless, there has since been controversy surrounding the verity of the genetic transmission of HIV-1 to Cameroon and Cote D’Ivoire. Additionally, because of the rapid mutation rate of HIV, by the time incidences of the disease were recorded in the 1980s and 1990s, “…the range of specimens from Africa, North America, and Europe…differed from one another in their composition by up to 30 percent” (Iliffe 2006, 5). This problem emerged largely because there was no “…visible epidemic…” of HIV from 1959, “…nor for the next twenty years” (Iliffe 2006, 5). The second reason Illife indicates for the slow emergence of a visible epidemic is the “…very gradual development of the disease within human bodies” (Iliffe 2006, 8). Chapter 3 begins to introduce HIV’s transition into West Africa as the “…silent epidemic”(Iliffe 2006, 13). In the decades since the disease’s initial discovery, there were strong links being made between transmission, through birth, blood transfusion, and through sex. In particular, Iliffe indicates that the findings in the Piot report concerning the heterosexual transmission of HIV proved extremely controversial. The report prompted Joseph McCormick and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention to fund a research project in Kinshasa. The report went beyond a quantitative analysis of HIV infection rates in West Africa and observed the cultural norms and contexts in which HIV exists in heterosexual relationships. In this way, the report prompted a necessary conversation about how the public should handle the discourse surrounding HIV/AIDS serostatus. Chapter 4 explains how HIV migrated to East Africa, and details the regions rates of infection twenty years passed 1959. Chapters 5 and 6 give similar treatment to South and West Africa. Chapters 12, 13 and 14, present the outlook on HIV/AIDS from the 2000s onward. In particular Iliffe points to the necessity for a shift in focus that changes the priorities of donors, and makes access to Antiretroviral Treatment more widely available. One means of achieving this is to not only focus on prevention, but to also screen communities most at risk for HIV infection. This way, they understand their serostatus and, if infected, can begin highly active antiretroviral therapy at the point of need. This screening method proved extremely effective in The Bronx, New York City. The New York Department of Health and Mental Hygiene indicates that major focus of activity in New York City has been the expansion of HIV testing, including both routine HIV screening and targeted testing in non‐clinical settings, with prompt linkage to care (New York City 2011, 583). CDC estimates of HIV transmission rates for persons aware versus unaware of their HIV status suggest that knowledge of serostatus and engagement in HIV treatment can decrease the HIV transmission rate by more than two‐thirds (CDC 2010, 4546). Measures to increase knowledge of HIV in New York City have included funding hospitals, clinics, and community based HIV testing, social network recruitment strategies engaging individuals with high risk behavior, and local approaches, such as, “The Bronx Knows”, where all sectors within the community raise awareness, promote, and conduct HIV screenings with prompt linkage to care (New York City 2011, 584). Together, these approaches have led to a significant increase in screening throughout New York City. The data collected from the New York Department of Health and Mental Hygiene shows that the percentage of New Yorkers, aged 18‐64, who report that they have ever tested for HIV grew from 63.2% in 2007 to 67.4 % in 2009. (New York City 2011, 584) This rate compares to a national rate for 18‐64 year‐olds of 45%. (New York City 2011, 586) Perhaps most encouraging, is the progress made in the Bronx. This is not only the poorest borough in New York City, but it is also the borough with the highest HIV/AIDS seroprevalence and systemic risk. In the Bronx, 79 percent of all residents aged 18 to 64 reported ever testing for HIV in 2009, up from 72.3 % in 2007. Also, efforts to improve linkage to care and treatment adherence have been stepped up dramatically. Currently, more than three-quarters of individuals newly diagnosed with HIV were linked to care within three months of their diagnosis resulting in the decreased incidence of HIV/AIDS between years 2007 and 2009 (CDC 2010, 4546). Additionally, using generic antiretroviral cocktails in the early stages of infection, and maintaining this treatment, not only reduces the intial HIV CD4 cell count, but also hinders the severity of HIV mutation. This means that the drugs weaken the opportunistic infection when it is first spotted, and, in turn, weaken the virus when it attempts to replicate. The power of HAART medications has been clearly demonstrated by the recent case of the Mississippi baby born with HIV/AIDS who has seen no signs of HIV/AIDS infection after only 18 months of HAART treatment. Therefore, institutions should prioritize making access to such life-changing treatment possible.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (U.S.), and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (U.S.). 2010. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention infectious diseases snapshot 2008. Atlanta, GA: Dept. of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Iliffe, John. 2006. The African AIDS epidemic: a history. Athens: Ohio University Press.

New York City HIV/AIDS Annual Surveillance Statistics. 2010. New York: New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, 2011. Updated January 4, 2012. Accessed July 17, 2012. http://www.nyc.gov/html/doh/downloads/pdf/ah/surveillance2010-tables-all.pdf

RAJ: THe Making and Unmaking of British India

Fayyaz Ahmed

               Book Review: “Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India”      

The book “Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India” by Lawrence James is a book about the legacy that the British had left in British India, which is now India and Pakistan. Both nations owe much to the British Empire for giving immense modernity to eh nation, which includes railways, canals, roads, education, hospital, Universal English Language and common law. This was not panned however, because the business ventures of the East India Company ventured into making India a land of economic opportunity, and hence the British realized that the people could adapt and become a “true” colony of Britain. The Indians were seen as different because they helped the British rule their own nation by doing odd jobs that benefitted the empire. An example can be seen through the people of Bengal making guns for the British army. The Indians were also looked upon differently from the rest of the Colonial states of the empire because they were commissioned as British soldiers in the military. This book explains how the British had put their “heart and soul” into the empire and how they transformed it. Today, both India and Pakistan use English as a major language in their education, Government, and everyday life. Although the British Empire influenced many of their attributes onto the Indian subcontinent, they also left their legacy and “heart of the empire” for everyone to remember. 

This book is crucial for my paper because it discusses how the British left their legacy in the Indian subcontinent. It also shows why the British Empire treated Indians as their own and not “second-class” human beings such as they did in Africa and other colonial nations. What differentiates this book from many other books is that it offers a perspective view from the Indians, Pakistanis, and the British points of views.

Book Review: Islamic Politics by Andrew C. Kimmens

The book I chose to do a book review on is Islamic Politics by Andrew C. Kimmens. Choosing a book to do a review on was quite difficult do to the fact that I am still tweaking the very essence of what my paper is going to be about. This book set out to shed light on issues in the Islamic political system that were misunderstood by Westerners. 

This book was compiled after the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. In it is a compilation of articles from books that have made informed analyses about Islamic politics. It timelines from secularism to radicalism to the future of Islamic politics. It even breaks down what exactly is an Islamic state and points out that though one might consider itself an Islamic state, there were only few Islamic ideologies used. 

What I liked most about the book was that it gave different examples with different countries. He used examples about Iran, Algeria, and Egypt. Though the book did not readily focus on women in these Islamic countries it did bring it up on a case by case basis.

I say that this reference book is a must read because it presented a series of facts with very little to no biases. I think the hard thing about books like this is presenting evidence in a way that doesn't seem lopsided. In this book, there is a presentation of articles that give a very straightforward  analyses. He concluded that in order to better understand one has to stop attacking the religion in itself, as it can make matters worse between the "modern world" and the "Islamic world".  

Spring 2013 - a new semester of the Comparative Politics Seminar

It's a new semester - Spring 2013 - and we're in the midst of another section of the Senior Seminar in Comparative Politics. There'll be new research posted about a number of topics, and hopefully interesting discussions.

American Sentenced to Death in Iran

A new year brings new tensions between the United States and Iran.  There was a bright moment when a United States naval ship rescued Iranian sailors who were taken hostage by Somali pirates.  Yet yesterday Iran's judiciary sentenced Amir Mirzaei Hekmati an Iranian American to death for espionage.  It claims that Hekmati spied for the CIA during a visit to Iran. Amir Hekmati has no connections to the United States government other than his citizenship and military service in Iraq.  His family argued that Hekmati was on a trip to visit his grandmother who still lives in Iran.  The Iranian government is giving Amir 20 days to appeal his sentence. Many believe the Iranians would not carry out the sentence but use it to push the envelope and as a bargaining chip. It will be interesting how this story will develop. This is probably the lowest point in US Iran relations since the hostage crises in 1979.

http://bostonglobe.com/news/world/2012/01/10/iran-orders-death-spy-case/9LZ9ncchostC1snu3h1HgK/story.html

Korea after Kim Jong-il: a path for reunification?

With the death of Kim Jong-il, all the major media networks now have the flashing “Breaking News” banners flashing and are talking about how South Korea is now on “heightened alert.” But before we let the paranoia-loving news networks get to our heads, it’s important to analyze the death of Kim Jong-il in the large scheme of things.

To start with, Kim Jong-il was an evil person and there is no question that the world is a much better place without him. Throughout his rule, the man defied numerous global outcries about the mass starvation in his country and instead decided to focus on building his arsenal of nuclear weapons. Even though the passing of Kim Jong-il is being taken as good news (as it should be, with people comparing him to Bin Laden and Gadhafi on Twitter), some people argue that things might get even worse under the apparent successor, one of Kim Jong-il’s sons: Kim Jong-un.

When Kim Jong-il first took power, the North Korean economy was already in shambles and many anticipated that the military was going to take control over the state. This did not take place and Kim Jong-il managed to centralize the state around him until his death. The circumstances that Kim Jong-un is now taking power under are eerily similar to the conditions under which his father took power. However, the results are likely to be different. According to Chung Young Tae of the Korea Institute of National Unification, there is a “big possibility that a power struggle may happen (in North Korea.”

No matter who might emerge as North Korea’s leader, the fact remains that North Korea is in an absolutely terrible economic position. It has come to a point where the North Korean government has increased its interactions with the international community, with the goal of seeking food. Over the course of the past few months, there have been “behind-the-scenes diplomatic contacts“ between North Korea and the United States. Word is that the United States will be announcing a significant donation of food to North Korea this week and that an agreement by North Korea to suspend its uranium enrichment program will likely follow.

My prediction is that this current economic instability, along with the now high possibility of political instability, will eventually lead to the failure of the North Korean state. Often misunderstood by the media, there has always been an intention from both Korean sides to reunite, but the problem has consisted in acknowledging and settling their differences. The failure of the North Korean state would hasten this process. However, a classmate and friend of mine, Junseo Lee, raises an excellent question in the previous post as to what would happen if North Korea did become a failed state. Lee asks: “…if North Korea becomes a failed state, who will claim legitimacy over those lands? China? Russia? Or South Korea?” I argue that any efforts from China or Russia to claim this territory is unlikely and that South Korea would in a way “absorb” the North, making for the reunification of the Korean nation.

But there also certain complications that arise with the possibility of reunification. For example, the mere economic disparity is striking. Recent data shows that North Korea’s GDP was estimated at $40 million, compared with the prosperous South Korea, with an estimated GDP of $1.138 trillion. Should the two states reunite into one nation, there is the possibility of a mass exodus of people living in the North to the South. There is no obvious South Korean plan for such a possibility and this would pose a huge problem for the nation.

Despite these complications, the prospects of Korean reunification would create a powerful, democratic, regional power. This would be good for the United States, as it would help counter-balance the Chinese. But it’s important to point out that the failure of the Korean state and possible reunification is not something that is imminent today or tomorrow, it is likely to take years.

I simply argue that the current North Korean state, especially in the context of a likely power struggle, will not be able to survive for that much longer and will likely fail. It is my hope and argument that this will eventually lead to the reunification of the Korean state, and the reunification of the Korean people.